Chinese tea culture

Chinese tea culture
Chinese tea sets
Traditional Chinese	中國茶文化
Simplified Chinese	中国茶文化
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Zhōngguó chá wénhuà
Alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	茶藝
Simplified Chinese	茶艺
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Chá yì
Second alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	茶道
Simplified Chinese	茶道
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Chá dào
Third alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	茶禮
Simplified Chinese	茶礼
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Chá lǐ

Chinese tea culture (simplified Chinese: 中国茶文化; traditional Chinese: 中國茶文化; pinyin: zhōngguó chá wénhuà; lit. 'Chinese tea culture') includes all facets of tea (茶 chá) found in Chinese culture throughout history. Physically, it consists of tea cultivation, brewing, serving, consumption, arts, and ceremonial aspects. Tea culture is an integral part of traditional Chinese material culture and spiritual culture. Tea culture emerged in the Tang dynasty, and flourished in the succeeding eras as a major cultural practice and as a major export good.

Chinese tea culture heavily influenced the cultures in neighboring East Asian countries, such as Japan and Korea, with each country developing a slightly different form of the tea ceremony. Chinese tea culture, especially the material aspects of tea cultivation, processing, and teaware also influenced later adopters of tea, such as India, the United Kingdom, and Russia (even though these tea cultures diverge considerably in preparation and taste).

Tea is still consumed regularly in modern China, both on casual and formal occasions. In addition to being a popular beverage, tea is used as an integral ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine as well as in Chinese cuisine.

Etymology

A tea house in Shanghai, China

A tea house in Presidential Palace Garden in Nanjing, China

The concept of tea culture is referred to in Chinese as chayi ("the art of drinking tea"), or cha wenhua ("tea culture"). The word cha (茶) denotes the beverage that is derived from Camellia sinensis, the tea plant. Prior to the 8th century BCE, tea was known collectively under the term 荼 (pinyin: tú) along with a great number of other bitter plants. This term is found in the Shi Jing (Classic of Poetry). These two Chinese characters are identical, with the exception of an additional horizontal stroke in the Chinese lettering 荼, which translates to tea. The older character is made up of the radical 艸 (pinyin: cǎo) in its reduced form of 艹 and the character 余 (pinyin: yú), which gives the phonetic cue.

During the Han dynasty, the word tu took on a new pronunciation, 'cha', in addition to its old pronunciation 'tu'. The syllable 'tu' (荼) later evolved into 'te' in the Fujian dialect, and later 'tea', 'te'.

Tea was also called 'jia' (檟) in the ancient Chinese classic Er Ya compiled during the early Han dynasty which states: "Jia is bitter tu". The word tu was further annotated by a Jin scholar, Guo Pu (276–324 CE): "Tu is a small plant, its leaves can be brewed into a beverage". Tea was also called "She' (蔎) in a West Han monograph on dialect called the Fang Yian. The syllable "jia' (檟) later became 'cha' and 'chai' (Russia, India). Meanwhile, the syllable 'she' (蔎) later became 'soh' in Jiangsu province, Suleiman's 'Sakh' also came from 'she'.

History

Shennong tasting herbs, c. 1503, painting by Guo Xu

Legends

Tea was identified in Southwest China over four thousand years ago. Ancient Chinese sources like the Classic of Tea and the Shennong Ben Cao Jing credit Shen Nong, considered the father of medicine and agriculture, as the first person to discover the effects of tea. He was known to have tasted numerous leaves to determine if they could be used as food or medicine. According to legend, there are two different accounts telling how he discovered tea's beneficial attributes. First, it is said he had a transparent stomach where he could see how his stomach was reacting to what he ate. After a long day of picking leaves, he was tired, and when he was boiling water, some leaves fell in. It was sweet when he drank the water, and he enjoyed the taste. Soon after that, he became more energized. In the second accounting, Shen Nong tasted 72 poisonous leaves and became very sick, and was close to death. When some leaves fell beside him, he put them in his mouth and chewed them. Before long, he was feeling better and more energized, so he ate more leaves. Soon after, the poison left his body. The first book written about the medical effects of tea was the Shen Nong Herbal. It is believed the people of ancient China ate tea leaves throughout history. However, the development of tea as a cultural aspect of China was developed over time.

The early dynasties

Before the Tang dynasty, tea was used and consumed mainly by the upper classes. It was used as a medicine, a sacrifice, tribute, or for ceremonial purposes. Tea was not available to the masses during this early period of tea history. In the early dynasties, tea was a luxury item used mainly by nobles and royalty. The elite began to drink tea to energize the body and clear the mind instead of only for medical purposes. Teas were boiled with other plants to make a tea soup which was considered a combination of medicine, food, and drink. The consumption of the soup did not become popular among the masses due to its bitter taste.

The Erya, a Chinese dictionary dated to the 3rd century BCE, records that an infusion of some kind of leaf was used as early as the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE). Records also indicate that ritual worship during the Zhou dynasty included tea ceremonies led by officials. Tea was considered an exotic plant from southern China, so it was offered as tribute to the emperor and was served to the nobles.

From the end of the Spring and Autumn period in the Early Western Han dynasty tea was used as a table vegetable food, often drunk in a soup with onions, ginger and other additives. In the historical text of "Yianzhi Chunchiu": the prime minister of Chi (547 BCE–490 BCE) had egg and tea as food on his table. Xia Zhong's Treatise on Food states "since Jin dynasty, the people of Wu (now Suzhou city) cooked tea leaves as food, and called it tea broth".

In 2016, the discovery of the earliest known physical evidence of tea from the mausoleum of Emperor Jing of Han (d. 141 BCE) in Xi'an was announced, indicating that tea from the genus Camellia was drunk by Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE) emperors as early as the 2nd century BCE. During the Han, improved picking and processing of wild tea refined the taste of tea. It became a pleasant source of refreshment popular with the nobles.

As the tea culture developed during the Jin dynasty (266–420) and Wei period (220–265), it is mainly concentrated in the upper class among literati, monks, the monarch, and his officials. Tea was set against wine as a beneficial drink, with wine being ‘violence and intoxication’ and tea ‘freshness and purity'. During this period, tea became the backdrop to deep philosophical discussions and a part of religious thought among Buddhists and Taoists. Buddhists believed it helped prevent dreariness, and Taoists believed it kept a person young and led to immortality.

Tang dynasty (618–906)

See also: Tang dynasty

A statue of Lu Yu in Xi'an

During the Tang dynasty, tea culture or ‘the art of tea’ as a pleasurable social activity (instead of as a ritual or medicine) began to spread widely throughout China. A method of processing tea known as 'green stemming' was developed, making it more pleasant to drink, adding to its popularity. At the same time, a new tea-making technique, known as roasting and baking, was invented during this period.

The Tang era Tea Horse Road development led to mature trade routes between Southern and Northwest China, and Tibet. The completion of the Grand Canal established a cost-effective method of transporting goods in China, making tea less expensive. Opening up trade routes and new processing techniques was vital to establishing tea as a national drink throughout China. Also during this period, artisans produced hundreds of examples of tea art, such as poems, drawings, songs, and literature. Tea houses and tea shops were also established during this time.

Yue ware celadon cup, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period

The leading high-end teaware of this period was the celadon Yue ware and the white glazed Xing ware. Both were patronized by the Tang imperial court.

The Classic of Tea (780) was a significant contribution to the evolution of tea culture during the Tang dynasty. An important work of literature by tea connoisseur Lu Yu, the book an extensive overview of Tang tea culture and industry. The Classic of Tea was the first monograph regarding the study of tea, which consisted of ten chapters ranging from the history of tea, its cultivation, and how to prepare, serve, and drink it. The book describes how tea plants were grown, the leaves processed, and tea prepared as a beverage. It also describes how tea was evaluated. The book also discusses where the best tea leaves were produced. Lu Yu also encouraged commoners to drink tea by including a section on what tea utensils could be omitted if one could not afford them. Lu Yu is known as the ‘Sage of Tea’ and the ‘God of Tea’ because of his profound influence on tea culture.

This classic book also tied drinking tea to spiritual matters, the arts, the Chinese way of life, morals, and philosophy. Though the majority of the Chinese population did not read it, intellectuals, nobility, and spiritual leaders embraced it. Confucian teachings indicated that the world should be managed, improved, and taught morals through classical learning. According to Liu, “Chinese intelligentsia regarded culture, or all literature and knowledge, as the carrier or instrument of human morality serving to carry out the civilizing function of the Tao (the way that the universe functions).” Lu Yu's classic writing helped transform an enjoyable beverage into an art woven into Chinese culture.

During the Tang era, the nature of the beverage and style of tea preparation were quite different from modern tea culture. Tea leaves were processed into a compressed brick form. The dried teabrick was ground in a stone mortar. Hot water was added to the powdered teacake, or the powdered teacake was boiled in earthenware kettles then consumed as a hot beverage. A form of compressed tea referred to as white tea was being produced during the Tang. This special white tea of Tang was picked in early spring, when the tea bushes had abundant growths which resembled silver needles. These "first flushes" were used as the raw material to make the compressed tea. From the Tang period onward, tea became one of the "Seven necessities."

Song dynasty (960–1279)

Song dynasty tea preparation, painted by Liu Songnian.

See also: Song dynasty

The tea culture flourished during the Song dynasty. In the Song dynasty, detailed standards emerged for judging the color, aroma, and taste of tea. Tea art, the tea ceremony, and tea houses continued to increase in popularity. “By the Song, a reputation for elegance required mastery of go (weiqi), zither, calligraphy, painting, shi and qu poetry, and tea.” These were considered the polite accomplishments of gentlemen. Some examples of tea literature, which was prolific at this time, are Record of Tea by Cai Xiang, and General Remarks on Tea, by Emperor Huizong, Zhao Ji.

China's monopoly on tea allowed them to use it as a powerful diplomatic tool. The Song established 'Tea and Horse Offices' (chamasi 茶马司) to oversee the trading of tea for horses along the Tea Horse Road with Tibet and Northwest China. They required large numbers of warhorses to fight battles with invading northern nomadic Liao, Jin, and Xixia. When disputes arose, the dynastic government would threaten to cut off the tea trade and close of the 'Tea and Horse offices'.

The traditional tea culture with the elite and scholars became more complex, with the addition of numerous rules, tea culture continued to spread to the masses. Regional variations of tea culture formed throughout China. Tea cultivation moved from wild tea plants to established farming, leading to tea being traded worldwide. ‘Tribute tea’ was the gifting of high-quality tea to the emperor to honor him. It was developed into a large government bureaucracy that managed tea cultivation on rural farms and transported it to the dynastic government.

The officials who oversaw the work often wrote poetry regarding their experiences and the intimate knowledge of the tea harvesting process. Picking began before dawn and stopped once the sun had risen. The poem by Southern Song tea expert Xiong Fan reads, “‘Throngs tussle, trampling new moss. I turn my head toward first blush over the dragon’s field. A warden beating a gong to urge haste, they carry baskets of tea down the mountain. When picking tea, one is not allowed to see the sunrise.’” The poem looks at the appreciation of tea as it acquired cultural significance throughout China. It also revealed how tea was harvested by studious pickers and focused on the official's personal experience, which was often described as a beautiful scene.

During the Song era, there many different types of popular teawares, including those made in the Five Great Kilns. Northern Celadon and southern Longquan celadon were the most popular types of celadon wares. Cizhou ware remained important, and other new types of white porcelain also became popular for teaware, like Ding ware and Qingbai ware.

In the Song dynasty, tea was a major export good, through the Silk Road on land and Silk Road on the sea, tea spread to Arab countries and Africa. During the Southern Song dynasty a Japanese monk called Eisai (明菴栄西, Ch: Yosai) came to Tiantai mountain of Zhejiang to study Chan (Zen) Buddhism (1168 CE); when he returned home in 1193 CE, he brought tea from China to Japan, planted it and wrote the first Japanese book on Tea (喫茶養生記, Treatise on Drinking Tea for Health). This was the beginning of tea cultivation and tea culture in Japan.

Compressed tea bricks

Modern Brick tea

Song Dynasty tea bowl on a Ming Dynasty stand

Tea served before the Ming dynasty was typically made from tea bricks made of partially dried or thoroughly dried and ground tea leaves pressed into bricks (a process similar to modern Pu-erh). In the Song era (and other pre-Ming eras), serving the tea from tea bricks required multiple steps:

• Toasting: Tea bricks are usually first toasted over a fire to destroy any mould or insects that may have burrowed into the bricks. Such infestations sometimes occurred since the bricks were stored openly in warehouses and storerooms. Toasting likely imparted a pleasant flavour to the resulting tea.
• Grinding: The tea brick was broken up and ground to a fine powder. This practise survives in Japanese powdered tea (matcha).
• Whisking: The powdered tea was mixed into hot water and frothed with a whisk before serving. The colour and patterns formed by the powdered tea were enjoyed while the mixture was imbibed.

The ground and whisked teas used then called for dark and patterned bowls in which the texture of the tea powder suspension could be enjoyed. The best of these bowls, glazed in patterns with names like oil spot, partridge feather, hare's fur, and tortoise shell, are highly valued today. The patterned holding bowl and tea mixture were often lauded in the period's poetry, with phrases such as "partridge in swirling clouds" or "snow on Hare's fur." Tea in this period was enjoyed more for its patterns and less for its flavour. The practise of powdered tea can still be seen in the Japanese tea ceremony, or Chadō which uses matcha.

Tea competitions

Song dynasty painting showing commoners engaged in tea competition

Tea competitions began in the Tang dynasty but became popular during the Song. These competitions would represent high levels of tea-tasting where contestants, usually men in the imperial palace, presented their most refined tea. Emperor Song Huizeng was a tea competition enthusiast. The quality of tea, tools used, and the water condition were of great importance in winning a tea competition.

This game was known as 'fighting tea' (doucha) or 'tea war' (mingzhan). The competition involved the entire process of tea preparation. An emphasis was placed on whipping the tea. The tea was stirred vigorously with a wooden whisk to create a foam on the surface called 'Tanghua'. The foam was made by pouring the boiling water over the tea leaves and whisking the water; this is known as dian (点) and fu (副). This process can be repeated up to seven times. If the tea is seen through the foam, the competitor would lose the competition. "Because they considered tea making an elegant pursuit, skill at whipping up bubbles became a sign of refinement, and the man with the best froth could enjoy the cries of admiration from his peers." Displaying one's manhood was important during this time, and tea fighting was one way for men to prove themselves. During the Tang and Song dynasties, showing elite manhood was tied to their refined values. It was associated with high cultural pursuits, so winning the tea competition allowed the winner to display their successful masculine image.

Ming era loose leaf revolution

Ming era porcelain teapot with enamel overglaze.

Ming Pewter Jar for tea leaves decorated with scenes inlaid with brass.

After 1391, the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dynasty, decreed that tributes of tea to the court were to be changed from brick to loose-leaf form. The imperial decree quickly transformed the tea-drinking habits of the people, changing from ground and whisked teas to steeped loose leaf teas. The arrival of the new method for preparing tea also required the creation or use of new vessels and tools, such as:

• The tea pot or tea brewing bowl (like a gaiwan) was needed so that the tea leaves could be steeped separately from the drinking vessel for an infusion of proper concentration. The tea must be kept warm, and the leaves must be separated from the resulting infusion when required.
• Tea caddies and containers also became necessary to keep the tea fresh and conserve its flavour. This was because tea leaves do not preserve as well as tea bricks. Furthermore, the natural aroma of tea became the focus of tea drinking due to the new preparation method.
• A change in Chinese tea-drinking vessels was evident. Smaller bowls with plain or simple designs on the interior surfaces were preferred over the larger patterned bowls used for enjoying the patterns created by powdered teas. Tea drinking in small bowls and cups was likely adopted since it gathers and directs the fragrant steam from the tea to the nose, allowing for a better appreciation of the tea's flavour.

Teawares made with a special kind of purple clay (zisha) from Yixing went on to develop during this period. Purple clay's structure made it an advantageous material with a tiny and high density, preferred for heat preservation and porousness. Simplicity and rusticity dominated the idea of purple clay teaware decoration art. It soon became a popular type of teaware.

New types of porcelain teawares also became popular during the Ming, such as Jingdezhen porcelain, which was popular in the imperial court and widely patronized by the emperor. The late Ming dynasty also saw a transition towards a market economy that exported porcelain worldwide at scale. During the reign of the Wanli Emperor (1572–1620), the kilns at Jingdezhen became the main production centre for large-scale porcelain exports to Europe, many of which were teaware pieces or sets that were valued by the upper classes in Europe.

Tea in the Qing Dynasty

Lobed Jingdezhen porcelain teapot, Kangxi Reign (1662-1722). Jingdezhen remained a major center for the production of teawares in the Qing.

The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) saw the development of new forms of processing tea. Before this, all Chinese teas were what is today called green tea (unoxidized tea). By the mid-18th century, new forms of tea begin to be processed and sold, including what is today known as oolong teas and black teas. Evidence for 18th century Wuyi mountain oolongs can be found in sources like Recipes from the Garden of Contentment by the famous gastronome Yuan Mei (1716–1797).

Qing teawares, Nanjing Museum

Modern-day style white teas also began to be produced during the Qing. They differed from other green teas in that the white tea process did not incorporate de-enzyming by steaming or pan-firing, and the leaves were shaped. Silver needle white teas were initially produced from the "chaicha", a mixed-variety tea bush which were were thin, small and did not have much silvery-white hair. It wasn't until 1885 that specific varietals of tea bushes were selected to make "Silver Needles" and other white teas. The large, fleshy buds of the "Big White", "Small White" and "Narcissus" tea bushes were selected to make white teas and are still used today as the raw material for the production of white tea. By 1891, the large, silvery-white down-covered Silver Needle tea was being exported. The production of White Peony tea meanwhile started later, in around 1922.

Black teas also begin to be produced at this time, but they remained mostly an export product that was popular in Europe but not China.

Refined ladies tasting tea by Yu Lan (1742–1809)

During the 19th century, Chinese tea was a major commodity exported by the Qing around the world. Its popularity exploded in European nations, especially in Great Britain and Russia, who developed their own distinct tea cultures under the influence of Chinese tea. This made many Chinese elites rich, but had unforeseen consequences. Initially, the trade between China and the British Empire during the Qing era favored the Chinese. Tea, and Chinese porcelains (especially teaware) were in high in demand for the British (along with Chinese silks), but the Chinese did not find British goods desirable and would only accept silver in payment for their goods. This created a trade imbalance for the British.

In order to reverse this situation, the British began smuggling opium into China, where they only accepted payments in silver as well. This created an endless cycle as Chinese citizens became addicted to opium, and the silver earned from opium sales would be used in turn by the British to pay for valuable Chinese goods, especially tea. The Qing state attempted to crack down on opium sales and this eventually led to the Opium wars (1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860). Britain was victorious, and this allowed them to gain trading rights within China's borders as well as other concessions.

20th century

Chinese teashop in Changde, Hunan, ca.1900-1919.

During the late 19th century, the British Empire and the East India company succeeded in growing and processing tea in the Indian regions of Darjeeling and Assam. They relied on an Indian strain of tea as well as Chinese tea specimens and seeds clandestinely extracted from China by the efforts of the Scottish botanist Robert Fortune. Several Chinese tea growers and processors were also paid to aid in this venture. This revolution in the global tea trade led meant that Qing China lost its monopoly on tea as the crop began to be produced worldwide. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, big western brands like Lyons, Liptons and Mazawattee dominated the western tea market. As such, by the beginning of the 20th century, Chinese tea was no longer the cash crop it had once been for the Qing empire.

Taiwanese tea production developed extensively throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. Taiwan remained a small tea producer in the 19th century which focused on oolongs like Dong Ding tea. During the Japanese occupation, the Yuchi Black Tea Research Institute focused on hybridizing commercial tea varieties with Taiwan's indigenous varieties. The tea industry continued to expand into the late 20th century. After the Chinese civil war, more Chinese migrated to Taiwan, bringing more Chinese tea culture and knowledge with them. Today, the Taiwan tea industry remains an important source of unique Chinese teas.

Under Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong's rule (1949–1976), China was mostly isolated from global markets. In the 1960s, under Mao's leadership, during the period known as the Great Leap Forward, tea production was significantly limited, and tea houses and shops were for the most part closed. The Cultural Revolution was also a period in which China’s tea culture suffered. Under the leadership of Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping and his Chinese economic reform, China experienced double-digit economic growth and an era of increased personal freedoms, which spurred a rebirth of the tea industry and the traditional aspect of tea culture. According to Gary Sigley: "a sense of self and nation has coalesced around tea." China is once again the leading producer of tea in the world.

Development of the gongfucha tradition

18th-century Chinese export porcelain teaware, Guimet Museum, Paris

During the 20th century, the modern gongfu style of tea drinking (sometimes called the "Chinese tea ceremony") exploded in popularity, becoming a common practice throughout the Sinophone world and beyond. The practice of making tea in small covered cups or pots, using many repeated infusions and drinking in small teacups was a local practice which developed during the 19th century in southern Chinese provinces like Fujian (in the Wuyi mountains region) and Guandong (Chaozhou area).

This method is described in Yuan Mei's Recipes from the Garden of Contentment, though it is clear that he sees it as a surprising new development which was unknown in north China. Northern Chinese during this time mostly drank tea made in large teapots or pots using large cups or glasses. These larger teawares resemble those which were exported to Europe (as Chinese export porcelain) and became widely imitated as western chinoiserie teawares. One of the first explanations and usage of the term gongfucha is found in an essay by Yu Jiao (1751–?), who served as a low ranking official in Guangdong and observed the practice.

A modern gongfu style chaxi ("tea setting"), which is supposed to impart aesthetic elegance.

Modern Chinese tea pioneers, most of whom practiced their art in Taiwan, took this early southern "gongfu" custom of tea drinking as well as influences from the Japanese senchadō (“the way of steamed tea”), and developed it into the modern gongfucha / chadao culture that could compete with Japanese tea culture. This new “Chinese tea arts culture” (zhonghua chayi wenhua) was initially termed chayi (“tea arts”) and was practiced in chayiguan (“tea art houses”) which initially appeared in 1970s Taiwan and attempted to provide a cultured, traditional, and quiet setting specifically for tea drinking (as opposed to the older "teahouses" often associated with the lower classes, gambling, smoking, and prostitution).

Lawrence Zhang writes that Taiwanese tea house owners, conscious of themselves as pioneers in a new movement, claimed they "were recovering a lost tradition by means of emphasizing the pureness of tea drinking as an activity". Since earlier Chinese tea culture had mostly been utilitarian, these Taiwan based pioneers in tea culture sought to create an aesthetically refined Chinese tradition which could rival the Japanese chadō as an art form. In this, they borrowed from Japanese tea arts. According to Zhang, key parallels to senchadō in Chinese chayi include "the newfound interest in the spatial arrangement of teaware" (seen in the modern concept of the aesthetically pleasing chaxi, "tea setting") as well as the new emphasis on "control of the movement of the physical body in relation to these wares" (which became formalized into rules for how the tea brewer should move while making tea). Taiwanese tea scholars like Cai Rongzhang and Fan Zengping also began to write books on the art of tea. Influenced by the Japanese tradition which emphasized the aesthetics of harmony (wa), respect (kei), purity (sei), and tranquility (jaku), these authors emphasized what they considered to be the basic elements of tea culture, including beauty (mei), health (jian), cultivation (xing), and ethics (lun) for Cai; and harmony (he), thrift (jian), silence (jing), and cleanliness (jie) for Fan.

Taiwan also used chayi culture to position itself as the legitimate representative of Chinese culture and tradition. As such, the influences of Japanese tea culture on chayi were mostly hidden. Chinese authors on tea well into the modern era continued to present gongfucha style as being an ancient tradition instead of a newly invented one.

After the 1980s, this newly invented "Chinese tea art" (Zhonghua chayi) tradition was adopted throughout mainland China as a new national custom by a new class of wealthy urbanites seeking authentic Chinese culture. During this time, the Taiwanese Ten Ren Tea group entered the mainland Chinese market and became one of the most important players in China's tea market, promoting gongfucha throughout the mainland.

21st century

Contemporary China and Taiwan currently offer various ways to experience cultural tea tourism, such as museums, tea trails, guided tours, tea houses, tea shops, tea markets, and tea tastings. There is one tea museum in mainland China and another in Taiwan. The National Tea Museum on the mainland can be found in Hangzhou in Zhejiang province, which maintains a variety of Chinese tea culture exhibits.

A revitalization of the traditional tea house throughout China has been spurred on by the introduction of new designer tea houses that cater to the young urban population. Chinese tea culture is now also being exported to western nations, with popular brands selling high end Chinese tea and gongfu teaware.

Preparation and consumption

Main article: Tea preparation

The different ways of brewing Chinese tea depend on variables like the formality of the occasion, the means of the people preparing it, the local and regional culture, personal preference, and the kind of tea being brewed.

For example, green teas are more delicate than oolong teas or black teas; therefore, green tea should be brewed with cooler water. The most informal method of brewing tea is to simply add the leaves to a pot containing hot water. This method is commonly found in households and restaurants, for example, in the context of dim sum or yum cha in Cantonese restaurants. Another method for serving tea is to use a small lidded cup called a gaiwan. An old way of brewing tea, the "grandfather method", is to just brew it in a cup and drink directly from that cup without straining or removing the leaves.

In contemporary China, tea bags and bottled tea have become more widespread.

Chinese tea ceremony

Main article: Gongfu tea ceremony

A Yixing clay teapot

Gongfu style Chinese tea preparation

Four Chinese tea cups

The Chinese tea ceremony (which may be called chadao 茶道, "the way of tea") is a typical Chinese activity involving the formal preparation and presentation of tea. It has held great cultural significance in China for over a thousand years. The important role of ceremony in Chinese culture is exemplified by the claim of the authors of Tea and Tea drinking: China's outstanding contribution to the mankind that, “The word ‘ceremony’ (Li, 礼) is the basis or gene of Chinese culture and the first syllable of Chinese civilization, as it says ‘Of all things, courtesy comes first’ (万事礼为先).” The Chinese tea ceremony grew in popularity in the Tang dynasty, reaching its peak in the Song dynasty.

Gongfu cha, meaning "making tea with skill", is the most popular method of tea ceremony in China. It makes use of small teapots or vessels holding about 100–150 ml (4 or 5 fl.oz.), the size being thought to enhance the aesthetics and to "round out" the taste of the tea being brewed. Common types of tea brewing vessels include Yixing teapots, Jingdezhen porcelain and gaiwans. Small tea cups are being used along with Yixing teapots. Gongfu tea is best consumed after meal to help digestion. Brewing tea in a Yixing teapot can be done for private enjoyment as well as to welcome guests. Depending on the region of China, there may be differences in the steps of brewing as well as the tools used in the process. For example, Taiwanese-style gongfu cha makes use of several additional instruments including tweezers, a smelling cup and a tea strainer.

The basic steps of a tea ceremony include: prepare tea, offer or serve tea, appreciate tea, sniff tea, savor and drink, and taste tea. Fine tea is required in both the formal tea ceremony and the tea competition. The Chinese tea ceremony is grounded on high-quality tea that “embodies the soul of the mountains and rivers, the essence of heaven and earth, and the loving care of man.” The second essential element is high-quality water. The highest quality water is ‘Tiashui’, rain or snow water collected in bamboo tubes or crocks, with natural spring water coming in second. Lu Yu set 20 different levels of water quality.

The next important part of fine tea is an aesthetically pleasing tea service allowing for the fragrance of the tea to be appreciated. The Book of Tea described 24 different tea tools and methods of preparing tea.

Where the tea is taken is also a part of the fine tea experience. Tea is considered special if served on hills with mist or cool breezes and in the moonlight. According to Liu Tong: “The Chinese emphasize the harmony between humans and nature in tea drinking.” During the Ming dynasty, there were specific rules surrounding when, where, and what environment was appropriate for the drinking of tea. A person should be relaxed and not too busy when taking tea. He should be in a peaceful setting, such as a courtyard, bridge, the forest, or a pavilion with lotus in the background. The weather should also be nice, rainy, or in moderate sunshine. Tea should be taken in a peaceful, tranquil setting, not a tense, noisy one. Tea should be experienced with only a few people at a time. As Cai Xiang states in his book, Record of Tea (1051), “The fewer guests when drinking tea, the better. A crowd of guests is noisy, and noise detracts from the elegance of the occasion. Drinking tea alone is serenity, with two guests is superior, with three or four is interesting, with five or six is extensive, and with seven or eight is an imposition.”

The tea ceremony is a tradition that exemplifies Chinese culture that has spread throughout the world, including in Japan, Korea, and Great Britain.

The arts and tea

During the Tang and Song dynasties, literati produced poetry, calligraphy, and paintings to show their cultivated minds and express themselves. They became enthusiastic tea drinkers as they worked on their art. "Talented drinkers also raised the general tone of tea drinking by associating it with other refined pursuits such as art, music, and literature." Lu Yu, the author of The Classic of Tea, was also an accomplished poet and calligrapher. Following is an excerpt of a famous tea poem written in the 8th century CE when tea art and literature were just emerging.

The first bowl sleekly moistened throat and lips;

The second banished all my loneliness;

The third expelled the dullness from my mind,

Sharpening inspiration gained from all the books I've read.

The fourth brought forth light perspiration,

Dispersing a lifetime's troubles through my pores.

The fifth bowl cleansed ev'ry atom of my being.

The sixth has made me kin to the Immortals.

The seventh is the utmost I can drink

This poem was a thank you note from Yu espousing the virtues of tea after receiving it as a gift. Giving gifts of tea was a common practice at this time and usually was reciprocated with a note and high-quality tea given in return. Often artists would send a poem along with the gift of tea, and the recipient would send another poem with a return gift of tea. From the gifts the term 'benevolent tea'(huicha) was coined.

Writing poetry was extremely popular during the Tang and Song dynasties and was considered a requirement to be among this group of scholarly men. According to Hinsch, "... readers today can still enjoy more than forty-eight thousand surviving poems written by two thousand poets from the Tang dynasty alone... Song writers continued to use tea as a stock poetic theme, and some of the greatest literary figures of that era, such as Su Shi, wrote enthusiastically and repeatedly about tea."

Calligraphy is another art form that was very popular among the artisans of the Tang and Song, in which they integrated tea culture. Some of the calligraphy considered masterpieces of this era are centered around tea. For example, a casual note from Su Shi to a friend inviting him to tea housed at the National Palace Museum in Beijing, is considered an artistic treasure because of its beauty.

Tea drinking customs

A set of equipment for drinking tea

A hostess serves tea at a traditional Chinese tea house.

Tea customs vary amongst different groups of people, regions, lifestyles, and religions. “Chinese tea arts include Confucianism tea, Taoism tea, Buddhism tea, and vulgar tea (俗茶) 'tea of the public', which conform to the corresponding religious morals and behavior standards.” Drinking tea for the Taoists represents how the body and soul are regarded as one and improving oneself through self-cultivation; tea helps the Buddhist understand the meaning of Zen; while the Confucians believe tea and drinking tea are used for hospitality representing their humanistic views.

China's national minority cultures have their own tea customs. In the words of Li Xiousong, "The Tibetans put tea before food." A gift of brick tea is considered the most valuable gift. They give butter tea to the most distinguished guests, salt tea to regular guests, and plain tea to people of Han nationality. Mongolian herdsmen drink milk tea. When a guest visits, they are invited in and presented with a cup of tea from the host, prepared by the hostess. Not accepting the tea would be considered extremely rude and offensive.

There are several special circumstances in which tea is prepared and consumed in Chinese culture, and is preserved completely in mainland China and Taiwan.

The Justice Cup

Chahai tea utensils, also known as Gong Dao Bei or "Cup of Equality," are a key tool for tea connoisseurs. It is used to ensure that each glass is filled equally, regardless of the material (glass, porcelain or clay) from which it is made.

The history of Chahai is closely linked to Chinese tea culture. With the growing popularity of tea ceremonies, it became important to provide the same amount of the drink for each guest. Chahai, also known as the "Cup of Equality," was created as a response to this challenge.

A sign of hospitality

Hospitality is important in Chinese culture, and offering tea to a guest is considered customary practice. A guest is expected to accept the tea and take at least a sip as a sign of appreciation.

A sign of respect

According to Chinese tradition, members of the younger generation should show their respect to members of the older generation by offering a cup of tea. Inviting their elders to restaurants for tea is a traditional holiday activity. Newly married couples serve tea to their elder family members. In the past, people of a lower social class served tea to the upper class in society. Today, with the increasing liberalization of Chinese society, this rule and its connotations have become blurred.

To apologize

In Chinese culture, tea may be offered as part of a formal apology. For example, children who have misbehaved may serve tea to their parents as a sign of regret and submission.

To show gratitude and celebrate weddings

In the traditional Chinese marriage ceremony, the bride and groom kneel in front of their respective parents, as well as elderly relatives such as grand parents and serve them tea and then thank them, together which represents an expression of their gratitude and respect. According to the tradition, the bride and groom serve both families. This process symbolizes the joining of the two families.

Tea drinking style

Tang dynasty boiling tea method

The tea was cooked directly in the kettle. This was the most common tea method in China's Tang dynasty. Before boiling the tea, crush the tea leaves, boil the water, and put in the seasoning, then sprinkle the tea powder into the pot. When drinking, the tea dregs and tea soup together while hot, called "eat tea". Tang people cooking tea once like to add seasoning to the tea soup, such as salt, onion, ginger or orange peel, and so on.

Song dynasty point tea method

This method of drinking tea was used in the Song dynasty, and tea people ate from this method. Song dynasty tea drinking method rose to the height of aesthetics and reached the ultimate. They decorated the tea cake with many dragon and phoenix patterns, very delicate, called "dragon and phoenix group tea". When drinking tea, first, the cake tea is crushed into a fine powder, with boiling water, to brew some tea. To make the tea powder and water into one, with a tea brush quickly hit, the tea and water fully mingle and make a lot of white tea froth. This is where the Japanese matcha ceremony originated.

Ming dynasty tea brewing method

By the Ming dynasty, the tea-making and drinking method was simplified again and again. Zhu Yuanzhang vigorously promoted loose tea, which led to tea alienation, before only green tea, and then slowly appeared other tea types. The tea brewing method continues today, brewing tea without any seasoning, drinking the original taste of tea, the authentic flavor, while the tea tools and techniques used to brew tea also simplified a lot, more conducive to the spread of tea culture.

Finger tapping

Light finger tapping is an informal way to thank the tea master or tea server for tea. While or after one's cup is filled, the receiver of the tea may tap the index and middle fingers (one or more in combination) to express gratitude to the person who served the tea. This custom is common in southern China, where meals are often accompanied by many servings of tea.

This custom is said to have originated in the Qing dynasty when the Qianlong Emperor traveled in disguise throughout the empire and his accompanying servants were instructed not to reveal their master's identity. One day in a restaurant in southern China, the emperor poured tea for a servant. To that servant it was a huge honor to have the emperor pour him a cup of tea. Out of habit, he wanted to kneel and bow to express his thanks to the emperor, however he could not do this since that would reveal the emperor's identity. Instead, he tapped the table with bent fingers to represent kneeling to the Emperor and to express his gratitude and respect. In this sense, the bent fingers supposedly signify a bowing servant.

In formal tea ceremonies nodding the head or saying "thank you" is more appropriate.

Tea growing and processing

Another important element of Chinese tea culture are the methods used to grow and process tea.

Roasting and brewing

Tea roasting

Steaming tea leaves was the primary process used for centuries in the preparation of tea. After the transition from compressed tea, the production of tea for trade and distribution changed once again. The Chinese learned to process tea in a different way in the mid-13th century. Back in the Tang Dynasty, tea was commonly prepared by bringing water to a boil and taking a cup of water out from the pot. Afterwards, the water would be stirred and tea powder would be poured into the swirling water. Finally, the water which was scooped out earlier was then poured back in which prevented the tea from over-boiling.

Fermentation

After cutting, tea is subjected to a so-called "fermentation." This process is not actually a fermentation, which is an anaerobic process, but rather an enzymatic oxidization of the polyphenols in the tea leaves, yielding theaflavins and thearubigins. When the tea leaves are dry, fermentation stops, allowing some control of the process by manipulation of the drying rate or adding water after drying. Fermentation can also be interrupted by heat, for example by steaming or dry-panning the tea leaves through a technique known as "shāqīng" (殺青). In 17th century China numerous advances were made in tea production. In the southern part of China, tea leaves were sun dried and then half fermented, producing Oolong or "black dragon tea." However, this method was not common in the rest of China. Tea was used for medical purposes, and salt was often added to alter its bitter taste.

Influence on Chinese culture

Roughly since the Tang dynasty, drinking tea has been an essential part of self-cultivation. Chinese Chan (similar to Japanese Zen) philosophy is also linked with drinking tea.

Teaware

Different teawares can affect people's expectations of tea. First of all, different teaware will affect how people feel about drinking tea. When tea is drunk with a tea set that looks ornamental, people's mood will become pleasant; when the teaware is not so ornamental, people's pleasure in drinking tea will be reduced. Secondly, the visual effect of the teaware affects people's expectations of the bitterness of the tea. The better the teaware, the more bitter people will think the tea is, and the more bitter the tea is, the better the tea is. So the teaware also influences people's judgment of the value of tea when no price information was provided. The practice of drinking tea was considered to be an expression of personal morality, education, social principles, and status. The price of tea ware varies depending on the material and quality of it. A set of jade tea ware can cost hundreds of thousands dollars whereas a set of low quality tea ware may only cost less than a hundred dollars. Increased enthusiasm for tea drinking led to the greater production of teaware.

Teahouse

Ancient Chinese scholars used the teahouse as a place for sharing ideas. The teahouse was where political allegiances and social rank were said to have been temporarily suspended in favor of honest and rational discourse. It is a paradise for tea lovers, but also a place for people to rest, recreation and socialization. Likewise, the teahouse is a microcosm or window of society, Chinese teahouse has a long history, as early as the Tang Emperor Xuanzong period, only then not called the teahouse called "tea store". The leisurely consumption of tea promoted conviviality and civility among the participants. The teahouse is not only a minor by-product of Chinese tea culture; it offers historical evidence of Chinese tea history. Today, people can also sense a humanistic atmosphere in Beijing's Lao She Teahouse and other East China cities like Hangzhou, Suzhou, Yangzhou, Nanjing, Wuxi, Shaoxing, Shanghai, and other places. The teahouse atmosphere is still dynamic and vigorous.

Spirituality and religion

Taiwanese bhiksuni (Buddhist nun) at a Vesak celebration, serving Oolong tea.

Chinese tea culture holds a significant place not only as a social and cultural activity but also within Chinese spirituality and religion. The interplay between tea culture and Chinese religion is profound, influencing the practices, and worldviews of the various Chinese religions. A modern Chinese article on tea states "It is believed that a tea-drinking process is a spiritual enjoyment, an art, a means of cultivating the moral character, and nourishing the mind." The modern Chinese tea ceremony may be seen to have spiritual components by some contemporary practitioners, depending on their worldview. Chinese tea culture may be associated with values like harmony, propriety, peace, happiness, simplicity, and physical cultivation.

Tea has played a crucial role in Buddhist monastic life, especially within Chan (Zen) Buddhism. The preparation and drinking of tea helped Buddhist monks in staying awake and focused during long hours of meditation. The simplicity and naturalness of drinking tea resonated with Buddhist values of simplicity and mindfulness and tea drinking was often an occasion for religious and philosophical discussion. As such, Buddhist monasteries became centers for tea cultivation and production. The exchange of tea among monasteries and lay followers facilitated a sense of community and mutual support, and allowed monasteries to raise funds. Tea is also used as a ceremonial offering to the Buddhas and is often placed on Buddhist altars.

In Confucian thought, tea drinking became associated with social rituals and the cultivation of social harmony. The tea ceremony is seen to reflect the Confucian ideals of propriety (li) and respect in social interactions. The act of preparing and serving tea, especially for one's family, is also seen as a means of self-cultivation, promoting Confucian virtues such as respect, filial piety, and humility. Furthermore, Confucian scholars often used tea gatherings as a way to discuss Confucian philosophy.

Daoists often sees tea as an important drink for promoting health since they believe that tea aids in the cultivation and balancing of qi (breath energy, vital energy). The energy or spirit of tea (cha qi) is seen as being able to harmonize the body and mind, promoting health and longevity. In Daoist practice, the preparation and consumption of tea may even be seen as part of Chinese alchemy.

Large teahouses can be equipped with stages performing traditional arts

Modern culture

In modern China, virtually every dwelling has a set of tea implements for brewing a cup of hot tea. They are symbols of welcome for visitors or neighbors. Traditionally, a visitor to a Chinese home is expected to sit down and drink tea while talking; visiting while remaining standing is considered uncouth. Folding the napkin in tea ceremonies is a traditional act in China performed to keep away bad qi energy. In Taiwan, tea ceremonies are held not only in daily life but also on important occasions.

Tea was regarded as one of the seven daily necessities, the others being firewood, rice, oil, salt, soy sauce, and vinegar. There are many different types of tea such as: green tea, oolong tea, red tea, black tea, white tea, yellow tea, puerh tea and flower tea. Traditionally, fresh tea leaves are regularly turned over in a deep bowl. This process allows the leaves dry in a way that preserves their full flavor, ready for use.

See also

• History of Tea in China
• Chinese Tea
• China National Tea Museum
• Chinese social relations
• Chinese tea ceremony schools
• Gongfu tea ceremony
• Tea classics
• Tea pet
• Tea-picking opera
• Teaism
• The Classic of Tea
• Yum cha
• East Asian tea ceremony

External links

• Basic Facts of Tea